— Don’t trust a man who needs an income – except if it is minimum wage. Those in corporate captivity would do anything to “feed a family”. [NNT]
Today, I’d like to talk about how to derive a public key from a secret using Elliptic Curve Cryptography. Let’s try the following command bx ec-to-public:
hsk81 ~ $ bx ec-to-public -h
Usage: bx ec-to-public [-hu] [--config value] [EC_PRIVATE_KEY]
Info: Derive the EC public key of an EC private key. Defaults to the
compressed public key format.
Options (named):
-c [--config] The path to the configuration settings file.
-h [--help] Get a description and instructions for this command.
-u [--uncompressed] Derive using the uncompressed public key format.
Arguments (positional):
EC_PRIVATE_KEY The Base16 EC private key. If not specified the key
is read from STDIN.
Alright, apparently ec-to-public takes a secret and turns it into something public, allowing other people to encrypt messages, which only you the holder of the secret can decrypt. That’s at least the working assumption under which public key cryptography operates!
In the context of Bitcoin the public key can be used as your address people can send “money” to, and only you can spend them, since as a holder of the private key only you can sign the associated transactions.
So, let’s generate such a public address for other people to send us money:
hsk81 ~ $ bx seed | bx ec-new | bx ec-to-public
03e81a84fe1d5aa4269b0faa78110549caf3873364467688dec27c94761c2b1e6e
Well, this does not really look like the traditional Bitcoin address you would expect so see – for example:
12AEJmWva5QJVYmQ3r3vdFZeFfLUeSVPBq
But that conversion from a public key to an actual address (accomplished with bx ec-to-address) will be discussed in depth in another post. Here, we want to focus on how exactly this “magic” transformation from a private key (secret) to a public key (address) is accomplished.
Let’s dive directly into the code of the bx ec-to-public command:
console_result ec_to_public::invoke(
std::ostream& output, std::ostream& error)
{
const auto& secret = get_ec_private_key_argument();
const auto& uncompressed = get_uncompressed_option();
ec_compressed point;
secret_to_public(point, secret);
output << ec_public(point, !uncompressed) << std::endl;
return console_result::okay;
}
As we see, some secret is transformed to a public point, which is called so because it corresponds to an actual “point” in Elliptic curve cryptography. The short explanation of how this is achieved, is to note that the secret is like the number of multiplications of the point over Elliptic curves, and the NSA telling us that this multiplication is “secure” enough to operate a multi-billion economy. Let’s see, where we will end up…
Anyway, since there is a bunch of “independent” mathematicians telling us more or less the same story, that ECC is secure enough (under the assumption that one-way functions exist, and under the assumption that $P\neq{NP}$ in a Turing model of computation, and under the assumption that current Quantum computers are not able to brute force the secret from the public point – lot’s of assumptions), we believe what we’re told and move on with our technical discussion.
Alright, let’s have a look at the secret_to_public function:
bool secret_to_public(ec_compressed& out, const ec_secret& secret)
{
const auto context = signing.context();
return secret_to_public(context, out, secret);
}
So, apparently what we do is to turn the secret under a certain signing context (which I will not further elaborate) into something public –
represented here by the out reference. Let’s dive deeper:
template <size_t Size>
bool secret_to_public(
const secp256k1_context* context,
byte_array<Size>& out, const ec_secret& secret)
{
secp256k1_pubkey pubkey;
return secp256k1_ec_pubkey_create(
context, &pubkey, secret.data()) == 1 &&
serialize(context, out, pubkey);
}
We’re getting close to the truth, and the magic seems to become more and more profane: Apparently, the secp256k1_ec_pubkey_create function seems to be doing the hard job, and if everything goes fine (== 1), we serialize the pubkey to out. Let’s dive even further:
int secp256k1_ec_pubkey_create(
const secp256k1_context* ctx,
secp256k1_pubkey *pubkey,
const unsigned char *seckey)
{
secp256k1_gej pj;
secp256k1_ge p;
secp256k1_scalar sec;
int overflow;
int ret = 0;
VERIFY_CHECK(ctx != NULL);
ARG_CHECK(pubkey != NULL);
memset(pubkey, 0, sizeof(*pubkey));
ARG_CHECK(secp256k1_ecmult_gen_context_is_built(&ctx->ecmult_gen_ctx));
ARG_CHECK(seckey != NULL);
secp256k1_scalar_set_b32(&sec, seckey, &overflow);
ret = (!overflow) & (!secp256k1_scalar_is_zero(&sec));
if (ret) {
secp256k1_ecmult_gen(&ctx->ecmult_gen_ctx, &pj, &sec);
secp256k1_ge_set_gej(&p, &pj);
secp256k1_pubkey_save(pubkey, &p);
}
secp256k1_scalar_clear(&sec);
return ret;
}
And welcome to the funny world of C programmers, who are not able to come up with reasonable variable names: The code above is actually not part of the libbitcoin software (which is currently maintained by Eric Voskuil using his beautiful C++).
Alright, let’s deconstruct the gibberish above and understand what’s going on: Well, this code does not do actually much except taking the input arguments, doing some sanity checks and invoking then the secp256k1_ecmult_gen function, which does the “heavy” lifting – namely executing a sec number of times an addition over Elliptic curves (modulo some prime number), which is then saved to pj, which is then turned into p, which is then finally stored in the pubkey pointer.
So, what does secp256k1_ecmult_gen really do? Let’s see:
static void secp256k1_ecmult_gen(
const secp256k1_ecmult_gen_context *ctx,
secp256k1_gej *r, const secp256k1_scalar *gn)
{
secp256k1_ge add;
secp256k1_ge_storage adds;
secp256k1_scalar gnb;
int bits;
int i, j;
memset(&adds, 0, sizeof(adds));
*r = ctx->initial;
/* Blind scalar/point multiplication by
computing (n-b)G + bG instead of nG. */
secp256k1_scalar_add(&gnb, gn, &ctx->blind);
add.infinity = 0;
for (j = 0; j < 64; j++) {
bits = secp256k1_scalar_get_bits(
&gnb, j * 4, 4
);
for (i = 0; i < 16; i++) {
secp256k1_ge_storage_cmov(
&adds, &(*ctx->prec)[j][i], i == bits
);
}
secp256k1_ge_from_storage(&add, &adds);
secp256k1_gej_add_ge(r, r, &add);
}
bits = 0;
secp256k1_ge_clear(&add);
secp256k1_scalar_clear(&gnb);
}
Mmh, more gibberish – although the main idea of this implementation is actually pretty ingenious (provided you believe the NSA as mentioned above): So, the r and gn variables seem to be important, where the former looks like the current sum and gn is of course our secret or the number of times we’re supposed to sum r over and over again (hence the name ec_mult_gen). The gen suffix looks like to stand for the generator of the Elliptic curve, which initially seems to come from the context member ctx->initial.
Two nice features, I like about this code is that the author tries very hard to write secure code by doing a so called “blind” multiplication, by initially adding a number ctx->blind to gn. What I find interesting, and don’t really understand yet is, that this initial blind number is not subtracted at the end to neutralize the initial addition. I can only explain this by speculating, that either ECC multiplication is invariant w.r.t. to an initial (blind) shift or it is auto-magically taken care of implicitly within the (nested) loops. If there is somebody among my readers, who’d like to enlighten me, please drop below a comment!
The other feature I like is, that the author seems to have tried to protect the multiplication against side-channels attacks, since as we all know measuring CPU thermodynamics can reveal under the right circumstances the very secret we utilize here (see the original source on GitHub with some corresponding comments, which I’ve omitted here for the sake of brevity).
Wow, alright! Let’s re-capitulate:
hsk81 ~ $ bx seed | bx ec-new | bx ec-to-public
03e81a84fe1d5aa4269b0faa78110549caf3873364467688dec27c94761c2b1e6e
So, an initial pseudo-random seed, which is calculated based on the clock (according to the current implementation), is turned into a private key (based on HD wallets – to be discussed in a later post), which is then morphed into a public key from which we can derive then an address.
Summarized: (a) measure the current time really really well (to a high degree of precision), while making sure nobody is watching; (b) do some deterministic magic to it and label it as your private key (and trust all your wealth upon this calculation – including your wife and children); (c) then take some publicly available number (the initial generator of an Elliptic curve), and (d) multiply your private key with that number (again trust your wife and children upon this multiplication), deriving finally (e) the public key. Ultimately (f) turn this public key into a Bitcoin address.
If it were only for the initial steps (a) till (e), I would be very suspicious of this whole construction; although admittedly, it’s pretty much the current state of the art in today’s – publicly available – cryptography.
But the last step (f) does mitigate a lot of the risks I see here, which I’m going to discuss in my next post.
